Language And Communication Children And Young People Essays

Language And Communication Children And Young People Essays Language And Communication Children And Young People Essay Language And Communication Children And Young People Essay The cardinal involvement of this essay is to measure the function of drama in relation to linguistic communication and communicating development. Developmental psychological science and theories of drama are the chief beginnings of researching and explicating this alone interrelatedness, because they offer critical information about human behaviour. For this ground several developmental theories have been developed by many scientists such as Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Sigmunt Freud, Albert Bandura and other modern-day scientists, who managed to clear up the facets of kid development from different positions. Initially, this essay illustrates the importance of drama by depicting its classs. Play theories are briefly demonstrated and divided into classical and modern-day 1s. Thereafter, it mentions the features of linguistic communication through the theories of two extremely well-thought-of scientists, Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget, in order to understand the correlativity between linguistic communication and drama development. It besides illustrates the being of nine basic communicating accomplishments and why non-verbal and verbal communicating is so of import. Furthermore, this essay analyzes research which explains the direct relation between drama, linguistic communication and communicating. Through elaborate mentions, the thought that the function of drama is outstanding in a kid s development is supported. Next it illustrates the importance of finger, mummer and rime drama to explicate that even the most common games possess a important function in linguistic communication and commu nicating development. Last but non least, it analyzes how play reinforces the literacy development and eventually demonstrates the sentiment of the author. The Importance of Play Arguably, drama is a critical portion of kids s development which has many deductions in their lives. Despite the trouble of mentioning to a normally accepted definition, drama is a critical portion of the developing kid ( Sheridan A ; Howard A ; Aldelson, 2011 ) . It is a cardinal action which occurs throughout kids s lives and is divided into two classs, free drama and structured drama. To be exact, free drama is an action where the kid can take the regulations and the signifier of drama, without the engagement and the battle of an grownup. Hence, the kid becomes the leader of drama ( Tassoni A ; Hucker, 2000 ) . Furthermore, many research workers have claimed that free drama offers more educational chances to kids. Whereas structured drama is defined as an action which is directed by grownups and limits kids s acquisition potencies. Adults are supporters and possess a primary function in this type of drama. For this ground, Thomas, Howard and Miles proved by a survey they conducted, that free drama, in other words playful mode drama, is capable of furthering kids s ability to larn. They province that through this manner kids s communicating is benefited, because gaiety creates the ability to heighten assorted types of behaviours. As a consequence, educational scenes use the playful method to further kids s linguistic communication and communicating development ( McInnes A ; Howard A ; Miles A ; Crowley, 2009 ) . It is of importance to advert that there are drama theories which are separated into two classs, classical and modern theories of drama. In peculiar, classical theories consist of the Surplus Energy Theory, Recreational or Relaxation Theory, Pre-exercise Theory and the Recapitulation Theory of drama ( Sheridan A ; Howard A ; Aldelson, 2011 A ; Stagnitti, 2004 A ; Tassoni A ; Hucker, 2000 ) . Modern theories concluded by the Arousal Modulation Theories of Play, the Psychodynamic Theories of Play, the Cognitive Developmental Theories of Play and the Sociocultural theories of Play. The last class is divided into two sub-categories which are the Play as Socialization and the Metacommunicative Theory ( Stagnitti, 2004 ) . Furthermore, there are five types of drama, which are cited as physical drama, drama with objects, symbolic drama, socio-dramatic/pretence drama and games with regulations ( Whitebread, 2012 ) . The above five types of drama aid kids to spread out their abilities non merely in the linguistic communication and communicating sphere, but besides in the physical, cognitive, societal and emotional sphere ( Sheridan A ; Howard A ; Aldelson, 2011 ) . Harmonizing to the changeless development of linguistic communication and communicating, drama and its benefits in this sphere must be analyzed in deepness, in order to measure kids s developmental potencies through drama. Language and Communication Language is a strong communicating tool ( Moyles, 1989 ) which fosters kids s abilities. Through linguistic communication we can populate the yesteryear once more, measure the hereafter and utilize this critical tool when we face complex state of affairss ( Crain, 2000 ) . Besides, many developmental theoreticians have tried to explicate, how kids adopt cardinal abilities as they grow up and some of them, hold given particular accent to the linguistic communication and communicating development and how it is related to play. They have evaluated kids s development from birth to maturity. Vygotsky, who was characterized as the Mozart of Psychology ( Gray A ; MacBlain, 2012, p.85 ) , claimed in his societal constructivism theory, that linguistic communication is the cultural tool which facilitates the procedures of thought and acquisition. It was his house belief that kids must grok linguistic communication, in order to interact in the society. Hence, harmonizing to Vygotsky, drama and linguistic communication are interrelated ( Moyles, 2005 ) . Due to the fact that through drama kids maestro communicating accomplishments, they interpret the usage of objects and copy the attitudes and the wonts of grownups ( Gray A ; MacBlain, 2012 ) . In add-on, he stated that kids gain cognition when they participate in societal communicating and accordingly, they adopt new significances. Therefore, harmonizing to Vygotsky, kids act in the zone of proximal development ( Whitebread, 1996 ) , which means that every kid has limited possible when carry throughing an activity but he ca n spread out his accomplishments with suited aid ( Lindon, 2001 ) . However, another respected scientist Piaget did non put accent, as Vygotsky did, on the importance of linguistic communication during kids s development. Piaget stated that linguistic communication mechanism is used by the immature kid merely to show some basic satisfactions and non to further more complex maps such as idea and logic ( Gray A ; MacBlain, 2012 ) . Furthermore, Piaget s sentiments did non advance kids s abilities ; alternatively he undervalued them, by using activities that were excessively complex for kids competency ( Whitebread, 1996 ) . On the reverse, some scientists argue that kids s idea, starts to work logically as they learn how to utilize linguistic communication. This happens because linguistic communication accomplishments are hard for kids to absorb, but when this bit by bit occurs, logic develops ( Crain, 2000 ) . Nevertheless, Piaget did non back up the above impression by adverting that logic derives from actions ( Gray A ; MacBlain, 2012 ) . On the evidences that linguistic communication is an built-in portion of communicating, it is of import to nail some of the accomplishments that kids develop in this sphere. In other words there are nine basic communicating accomplishments. Initially, kids learn to bespeak support, to bespeak aid, to accept and reject offers. Furthermore, they respond to the order wait or no , they respond to waies, follow a agenda and eventually they are able to do a passage from one topographic point to another ( Frost A ; Bondy, 2002 ) . For case, when kids pretend to be a patient in a infirmary, they learn when they have to wait their bend in order to be examined by the physician and they give orders such as wait , stay , come . Communication is a complex map. Before the outgrowth of words, kids can pass on adequately before following linguistic communication production and linguistic communication comprehension ( Sheridan A ; Sharma A ; Cockerill, 2008 ) . The above facet describes the non-verbal communicating type which is really of import. Newborn babes communicate nonverbally to show their demands. Facial looks, organic structure linguistic communication, proto-sounds and perceptual experience of feelings are the properties of non-verbal communicating ( Whitehead, 1999 ) . Hence, adults start to pass on with kids ab initio nonverbally and finally verbally. Research proves that conversation between kids and grownups which contains a big figure of unfastened inquiries is indispensable because kids have the chance to react to talk linguistic communication. In other words, when kids feel that they are active participants in an adult-child conversation, they feel playful which is salient for the development of linguistic communication ( Howard A ; McInnes, forthcoming ) . Fostering Language and Communication Skills through Play To get down with, surveies have proved that there is a strong connexion between linguistic communication and drama. Research which was conducted in Japan in 1989, showed singular marks that drama and linguistic communication are strongly correlated. Specifically, the four kids who participated in this research were observed 20 times each in a free drama manner, where the grownups had a inactive function. The purpose of the survey was to analyse early linguistic communication development and drama development ( Ogura, 1991 ) . Therefore, six characteristics of linguistic communication were illustrated in order to analyse the findings better. These were the outgrowth of first words, calling words, vocabulary jets, word-chains, nonproductive two word vocalizations and the outgrowth of productive two-word vocalizations ( Ogura, 1991 p.278 ) . Furthermore, this research divided drama into 13 subcategories. The findings showed that kids managed to obtain the ability of calling words becaus e they had been involved in preverbal communicating. Besides, kids began to call objects when the conventional naming act class of drama appeared. Furthermore, words and sounds have a strong relationship with each other. It was proved that kids through the functional relational use drama and the container relational use drama, managed to follow the above of import map and the production of first words every bit good. Furthermore, it was stated that early linguistic communication development is related to subsitutional drama. Besides, this survey illustrated that the environment plays a major function in the development of symbolic drama. As a consequence, linguistic communication is influenced by societal interaction. Furthermore, kids s vocabulary jets appeared in subsitutional drama. Word-chains appeared when make-believe doll drama, subsitutional drama and feign other drama took topographic point during the observations. In add-on, the 5th linguistic communication class appeared with planned drama and combinative symbolic drama. The last linguistic communication class was related to planned drama ( Ogura, 1991 ) . Undoubtedly, this paper shows the alone interrelatedness between linguistic communication development and drama. Research workers evaluated the connexion between symbolic drama with drama stuffs and symbolic drama with drama state of affairs. First, during kids s drama with unstructured drama stuffs, they found that kids who are at the age of three to four could copy the activities of grownups. However, in structured drama kids were able non merely to copy but besides to prosecute somewhat in function drama. At the age of four to five kids s unstructured drama evolved and they started to show inquiries and thoughts with the mediate tool of spoken linguistic communication. On the contrary, in structured drama they used more conversation. This survey showed that in the first type of drama kids at the age of five to six used their organic structure linguistic communication and voice to clear up a state of affairs. Besides, both in structured and unstructured drama, kids preferred to play in groups of their ain gender. We can detect that structured stuffs are better for younger kids because they do non set restrictions on their thoughts while playing. In other words, younger kids need to heighten their expressive thoughts by playing with structured drama stuffs to be adequately prepared for school ( Umek A ; Musek, 2001 ) . At the same clip, symbolic drama related to play state of affairs showed that phonic imitation ( Umek A ; Musek, 2001, p.61 ) is promoted and that at the age of four kids use societal address. Furthermore, they use societal markers, in order to talk like grownups ( Ervin-Tripp, 1973 ) . Subsequently, at the age of five kids use metacommunication in their drama. Metacommunication is really of import because kids can discourse drama. They stop in order to negociate the following measure of the game. Indeed, it promotes duologue among equals. It is really of import because it can be used as scaffolding to kids s linguistic communication development ( Andersen, 2005 ) . Harmonizing to this survey, metacommunication degrees are higher when kids are older. Furthermore, the same survey proposes that it is better and more helpful for kids to play in assorted groups instead than in groups with members of their ain age. Hence, kids can play in the zone of proximal development. Therefore, they foster their linguistic communication and communicating accomplishments. Again, this survey shows us that drama which is dependent on stuffs or state of affairs is correlated with linguistic communication development. Apart from the above surveies there are drama activities which enhance linguistic communication and communicating accomplishments. For case, kids are benefited by mummer because they develop an alternate idea. This occurs by detecting assorted kids showing their ideas. Consequently, they can believe of more complex state of affairss and they are able to show their thoughts with enriched vocabulary. Furthermore, finger drama helps kids with the numeration procedure ( Woodard A ; Milch, 2012 ) . Furthermore, rimes can supply many chances for kids to heighten their linguistic communication accomplishments. Harmonizing to a survey, rime consciousness helps kids to acknowledge phonemes which are really of import for reading accomplishments. The sensitiveness to rime enables kids to group words together with the same spelling characteristics ( Bryant A ; MacLean A ; Bradley A ; Crossland, 1990 ) . Play Fosters Literacy Vygotsky evaluated the function of pretend drama in kids s development and he argued that literacy is enhanced by drama. He describes that kids ab initio act spontaneously when they play, and the procedure of larning happens with their will. On the contrary, when kids go to school they must alter their behaviours to a planned and a structured environment. Vygotsky stated that pretend drama is the of import mediate tool for kids to follow written linguistic communication and to win in school ( Roskos A ; Christie, 2007 ) . Furthermore, pulling is considered to be a necessary drama for kids. Research has shown that kids can spread out their graphic vocabularies and they can stand for their significances, which means that through pulling communicating is enhanced ( Whitebread, 2012 ) . Besides, Vygotsky s research has shown that drawings in early childhood are connected with the ability of authorship and spoken linguistic communication, which means that the significance of kids s drawings is non merely the drawing as a image but the drawing as an expressive tool of their ideas ( Roskos A ; Christie, 2007 ) . In decision, it is deserving adverting, that in kids s drama the repeat and the renaming of drama stuffs fosters the ability of the direct relation between words and the objects they portray. The above map is called metalinguistic consciousness and it has been proved that it is necessary for written linguistic communication ( Roskos A ; Christie, 2007 p.193 ) . Decisions It is clear, hence, that the above essay illustrates the direct correlativity between drama, linguistic communication and communicating. Despite the fact that it has been proved that drama fosters the acquisition procedure, there are still oppositions of this position, who province that formal acquisition schemes are better than playful attacks. However, this essay contradicts the impression of formal larning methods by back uping the theory, that play does heighten linguistic communication and communicating by mentioning equal bibliography to turn out it. Children can make high criterions in the learning procedure of linguistic communication because during drama they are motivated and are non possessed by the feeling of fright ( McInnes et al. , 2009 ) . To sum up, due to the fact that drama has been decreased in school scenes, it is outstanding to guarantee that drama must be in preschool and in the first school old ages of a kid, because a kid is ever above his mean age, above his day-to-day behaviour ; in drama it is as though he were a caput taller than himself ( Roskos A ; Christie, 2007, p.199 ) .

Descriptive Essay on a Piece of Art

Descriptive Essay on a Piece of Art Descriptive Essay on a Piece of Art Very few paintings today are as popular as Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa. There may be very many painters today, some of whom may be more skilled than Leonardo; however, there is yet to be a painter who can express facial features on a piece of art as Leonardo did. For instance, Mona Lisa’s smile has been a subject of much debate, given the many articles that have been written to try and describe this smile. Leonardo’s other work of art, christened the Lady with Ermine, also presents facial features in an outstanding manner. An examination of the Mona Lisa in the present day reveals that the painting has indeed had better days. The original color of the painting appears faded and is almost gone and this is perhaps the reason why the original painting has been repainted at least three times. The painting does not appear to be clean and this can be observed in the greenish glaze on the painting. The repainting of the painting and the greenish glaze makes the painting somewhat different from what Leonardo originally painted. In a bid to understand the Mona Lisa, artists have continued to question the identity of Mona Lisa. The Mona Lisa has so far been associated with more than 10 different women and some professionals have even stated that she may have been a lover of Leonardo. Some artists have even proposed that the painting depicts a boy and not necessarily a woman as it so obviously appears to be. Some of the interesting descriptions of the painting are that it is Leonardo’s mother, Catherina, his daughter, or even his son. Some artists have even recently described the painting as a self-portrait. Despite its age and the confusion over who is depicted in the painting, the Mona Lisa is still regarded as one of the most popular paintings in the world of today. The painting has indeed stood the test of time and has been written about and reproduced more than any other painting in the world. The famous painting is currently being exhibited in the Louvre museum, Paris, in a temperature and humidity controlled box that has been embedded in concrete. The museum protects the painting using two sheets of bulletproof glass that have been triple laminated. Even with this high level of care and security accorded to the painting, the museum has placed a couple of guards next to the painting whose main job is to control the flow of the crowd. Given the high level of protection and care granted to the Mona Lisa painting, it is accurate to state that the authentic Mona Lisa is difficult to see. This is especially so because of the huge crowd of tourists who gather in front of this painting every day when the museum is open as well as the numerous flashes from the cameras of the tourists. More than nine million tourists flock the museum on an annual basis just to get a glimpse of the famous painting. Tips on writing a descriptive essay on a Piece of Art: Writing descriptive essays is like writing narrative essays, in the sense that both paint a picture for the reader to imagine. Therefore, you have to show your readers through words what you want to describe, not just tell about it. What you should tell the readers is what you are going to describe in your essay in the introductory paragraph, so that they are not confused. You can buy Art essay written from scratch by academic experts at custom essay writing service. Just fill in the order form with all paper details.

The difference between a group and a team Essay

The difference between a group and a team - Essay Example A person who fails in individual assignments may shine excellently in a group or team under the leadership of a leader. Group and team have some basic differences in their formation, functioning and objectives. In a team work all the members have equal responsibility in completing the project successfully. For example, in a marketing team of an organization, each member of the team has equal responsibility is achieving the target. They cannot put the blame entirely on the team leaders for their failures. On the other hand all the group activities are controlled and directed by a group leader and hence the group leader has more responsibility than the members to attain the group objectives. A team usually consists of people having different skills. They may function better under a team compared to individual functioning. For example in a printing unit, the production team may consist of printers, helpers, designers, materials managers, delivery boys etc. Each member has different skills which will be utilized for the benefit of the company. Team objectives may fail if one or more members fail in their missions. For example, if the materials managers failed to procure the materials in time the production may be disturbed. If either the printer or the helper fails to execute their responsibilities properly, then also the production process may be affected. Group on the other hand consists of people having similar skills. For example, in an organization the accounts department may consist of 5 – 10 accountants under an accounts manager or financial controller. The accounts manager/ financial controller distribute the works to the group members and he is responsible for handling the entire finance matters of the company. In case of a financial problem, he cannot blame the group members since all of them work under the strict

Global citizenship is an idea whose time has finally come Discuss Essay

Global citizenship is an idea whose time has finally come Discuss - Essay Example It also aims at studying the underlying assumptions and ideology behind the two concepts supported by evidences. The Idea of Global Citizenship In recent times the idea of global citizenship in its various forms is fast gaining momentum all around the globe. It is inspiring youngsters to grow into global citizens; it requires them to be morally responsible, intellectually competent and culturally perceptive to diverse cultures. The trend for global citizenship started with social movements like eradication of poverty, labor rights, environmental protection etc. These organizations claim that they work for the welfare of humanity by ensuring social justice and democratic accountability in the world economy. These organizations claim the global citizenship and hence welfare for the humanity (Giddens, 2010). Global corporations also are working for the propagation of concept of global citizenship by projecting socially responsible public image through their corporate social responsibili ty (CSR) activities. The concept of global citizenship has also seeped into the kind of human capital. The graduates of prestigious universities not only study but also work in global organizations different from their country of origin and have contacts literally all over the world. Such human capital also claims to be global citizens. Global citizenship is not a new phenomenon but it dates back to ancient Greece history. It is reflected in the fact that the word â€Å"Cosmopolitan† is a composite of Greek words for â€Å"order†, â€Å"universe† and â€Å"citizen†. In fact the idea of global citizenship is older than the concept of nationalism. This concept of global citizenship can be attributed to the growing public awareness about the global interdependence. However opponents of this theory which constitutes the intellectuals and political agents discard it as an impractical theory. They claim the concept of global citizenship is not possible in the a bsence of international or global governing bodies and global governments. The proponents of national government find global citizenship especially weak in the realm of politics, political science and legal issues where nationalism plays a vital role (Schattle, 2008). On the wake of global platform for digital communication and the interdependency of world the concept of global citizenship may flourish in other ways in educational institutions, global corporations and social organizations for humanity etc. Globalization and Citizenship Globalization and migration is seen as major threat or challenge to identity, belonging, humanitarian laws and human rights. As the world is becoming more global and open, the need for the protection of citizenship is growing. The major threats to citizenship are political threats, immigration or international migration and mobility, the growing trend of intolerance and religious fundamentalism and the endangered environmental and social security. The re is a trend of restructuring of welfare system to match the changes in demographics. The

Was Karl Marx a Determinist?

Was Karl Marx a Determinist? The aim of this essay is to address to what extent Karl Marx could be considered a determinist. In doing so it will consider: (a) what constitutes determinism; (b) Marx’s theories on history; and (c) whether these theories are compatible with the notion of determinism. Precedence is given to section (b) due to the sheer volume of existing literature in this field. Analysis is limited to Marx’s personal theories on history as opposed to Marxist theory on history, as the latter is largely tangential to the issue in question.[1] (a) Determinism Determinism has many facets. In the broad sense it can be summarised as the philosophical proposition that every historical event is causally determined by an unbroken or predetermined chain of prior events. In rudimentary terms, therefore, determinism is the antithesis of free will – the notion that there is no predestined fate for mankind except that which it determines for itself. Determinism should not be confused with fatalism, which dictates that all future events are already predetermined and will definitely occur. Rather determinism is associated with and depends upon the concepts of materialism and causality. More specifically, it is economic determinism with which, rightly or wrongly, Marx has become associated. Economic determinism can be defined as a form of determinism which explains social structure and culture as a product of the social and technical organisation of economic life.[2] It essentially lends primacy to economics over politics in the development of human history. It has been interpreted as the belief that economic laws determine the course of history, in much the same way as Auguste Comte considered that laws governed society.[3] On a more elementary level, Fleischer writes that as self-preservation is the supreme instinct in man, therefore the entire pattern of human conduct must always have been governed by the fundamental laws governing survival – a dialectical process between man and nature. This reasoning gives rise to the conclusion that all elements of historical consequence result from economic determinism, or man’s instinctive effort to survive.[4] In order for us to understand Marx’s association with economic determinism, an analysis of his theories on history is essential. (b) Marx’s theories on history Jon Elster writes that Marx had ‘both an empirical theory of history and a speculative philosophy of history.’[5] It is the former, better known as historical materialism, which concerns us. Historical materialism as an explanatory system has been expanded and refined by many academic studies since Marx’s death in 1883, despite no formal exposition of the concept ever having been published by Marx himself.[6] It looks for the causes of developments and changes in human societies in the way in which humans collectively make the means to life, thus giving an emphasis, through economic analysis, to everything that co-exists with the economic base of society, such as social classes, political structures and ideologies. While Marx claimed only to be proposing a guideline to historical research, by the twentieth century the concept of historical materialism had become a keystone of modern Communist doctrine. An understanding of the origins of Marx’s attachment to materialism is essential in appreciating its concept. These origins can largely be attributed to his research on the philosophy of Epicurus and his reading of Adam Smith and other political economists. Historical materialism builds upon the idea that became current in philosophy from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries that the development of human society has moved through a series of stages, from hunting and gathering, through pastoralism and cultivation, to commercial society. Marx argued that the history of Western society had progressed though the following stages or ‘modes of production.’ Each mode of production had its own economic system which gave rise to a system of class division based around ownership of the means of production: (i) primitive communism (ii) slave society (iii)feudalism (iv)capitalism Marxists say that society moves from one stage to the next when the dominant class is displaced by a new emerging class. The final stage in the chain, communism (as we know it today), would eventually supplant capitalism on a global scale, and would therefore represent both the intended target and end result of social history. The fundamental theory of historical materialism stems from the fact that people must procure or produce the necessities by which they can survive and reproduce themselves. Human beings are producers, and their production consists of two distinct aspects: the material and the social. The material refers to the physical necessities of life. In producing physical necessities, human beings create the social form, within which they produce. The social form of production is a social process by which people cooperate (through a division of labour in more complex social forms) to produce the things they need. This aspect always involves the social relations of those involved. These relations crucially concern the control of the process of production and the distribution of its products. The material aspect of production implies a certain organisation of production, possession of the appropriate tools, and knowledge. This material aspect of production is known as the ‘productive forces .’ The social form in which people produce is called the ‘relations of production.’ Together, the forces and relations of production make up the ‘mode of production.’ The next stage in the argument is more controversial. Initially, the interacting factors in the productive system of a class-based economy, including the forces and relations of production, are in a state of relative equilibrium. The forces of production determine and limit or at least correspond to the relations of production. Let us consider an example to help make this relationship more transparent. The earliest humans reproduced themselves by hunting animals and producing simple crops. Such a society could not produce cars, computers or engage in the mass production we have today. They lacked the tools and knowledge to do so. Knowledge and tools are part of the productive forces, which constrain the nature of the relations of production. This material limitation on what earlier societies could produce also constrained the types of relationships that existed between people. However, at some point the expanding forces of production clash with the contracting relations of production . In mankind’s harnessing of technology, the forces develop more rapidly, and in a direction incompatible with the relations of production. As the capacity to produce expands, the ownership of the means of production contracts. Consequently, the forces of production can no longer freely develop within the confines of the class structure. This conflict between the forces and relations of production intensifies until, by means of revolution, the social relations are reorganised so as to harmonise with the productive forces. It is anticipated that mankind will ultimately establish control over the material powers of the economy.[7] Historians such as Jon Elster and David McLellan have scoured Marx’s writings for evidence of his rationale on historical materialism. Elster points to Das Kapital, Marx’s preface in A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, and what he refers to as ‘rambling, disconnected passages’ in The German Ideology as key sources.[8] He explains: Historical materialism is not simply a theory that accords a privileged place to economic factors. It is, more specifically, a form of technological determinism. The rise and fall of successive property regimes are explained by their tendency to promote or fetter technical change.[9] On Marx’s writings on the historical modes of production, Elster argues that Marx ‘does not provide applications and clarifications of the general theory.’[10] According to Elster, there is no suggestion that each of the three precapitalist modes of production (primitive communism, slave society and feudalism) divides into a progressive stage (in which the relations of production correspond to the forces of production) and a regressive stage (in which the correspondence becomes a contradiction). On the contrary, Marx consistently claims that technology was essentially unchanging from antiquity to the early modern period (with the exception of the invention of gunpowder, the printing press and the compass), and that the destabilising element in the ancient world was not the development of the forces of production but population growth. Elster is also critical of Marx’s account of the (then) impending transition from capitalism to communism. He argues that as Marx insisted that technical change in capitalism was accelerating rather than slowing down, he could not claim that capitalism was moribund in its stagnation. Rather, Elster insists, Marx would have to argue that the proletariat would be motivated by the prospect of a communist society which would benefit from technical change at an even more accelerated pace. This in itself is an unlikely motivation as people revolt when conditions deteriorate or when their expectations of improvement are not fulfilled, rather than when there is an abstract possibility of a society in which conditions could be even better than they are already. McLellan is less critical, appearing to methodically signpost the scholar through the confused abstracts. While he does not specifically mention determinism, he points to it by highlighting the inevitability of worldwide communist revolution above all else. He draws the reader’s attention to the following Marx quotations: Things have come to the point where individuals must appropriate the existing totality of productive forces not merely to achieve self-activity but to secure their very existence. In all appropriations up to now a mass of individuals remained subservient to a single instrument of production. In the appropriation by the proletarians, a mass of instruments of production must be subservient to each individual and the property of all. The only way for individuals to control modern universal interaction is to make it subject to the control of all. Communism is not [†¦] a state of affairs still to be established, not an ideal to which reality will have to adjust. We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of affairs. [11] The salient point here is that McLellan draws on these passages to illustrate that socialism for Marx was an economic reality rather than an ethical ideal. This represents a paradigm of determinism in Marx’s writing. The fundamental assumptions of historical materialism as viewed by Marx, irrespective of any period of history, can therefore be summarised as follows: humans are social animals who live in a complex society; human society consists of humans collectively working on nature to make the means to life; human society develops a complex division of labour; over time humans advance their harnessing of nature through the development of science and technology; human beings have the ability to reflect on their society and interaction with nature, but their thinking and organisation are always preconditioned by and dependent on the state of development of their society and of the power structures in their society. Let us now consider whether these assumptions are compatible with the concept of economic determinism. (c) Marxist theory and economic determinism As discussed in section (b), according to Marx, each social mode of production produces the material conditions of its reproduction, that is ideology (which encompasses all the political, law and cultural spheres). Thus ideology permits the mode of production to reproduce itself. Marx also believed that in the event of a revolutionary force changing the mode of production, the dominant class would immediately set out to create a new society to protect this new economic order. In the nineteenth century, Marx felt as if the bourgeoisie had essentially accomplished the establishment of a new societal and economic order, instinctively creating a society protective of their capitalist interests. This prompted Marx (and Engels) to direct this statement from the Communist Manifesto at the bourgeoisie: Your very ideas are but the outgrowth of conditions of your bourgeois production and bourgeois property, just as your jurisprudence is but the will of your class, made into law for all, a will whose essential character and direction are determined by the economic conditions of the existence of your class.[12] From this, it is argued that Marx and Engels did not believe men could arbitrarily choose any one of several forms of society, but only that one which promotes the prevailing mode of production. The very nature of man’s materialistic constitution requires that he do this. Marx hence criticised man’s alienation, a concept which he latter replaced by the critique of commodity fetishism. ‘Vulgar Marxism’ has considered that the relation between the economical infrastructure and the ideological superstructure was an unicausal one, and thus believed in economic determinism. This has been criticised by Marxist theorists such as Helmut Fleischer, who dismissed it as a form of economism or economic reductionism. He claimed the relationship is much more reciprocal and complex than unilateral determinism would have it. There are also scholars who reject this view. Fleischer highlights those who objected that economic determinism is a meaningless generality, and that any serious historical explanation of economic realities must also refer to non-economic realities. This becomes a more conspicuous problem when it is unclear which branch of determinism is implied. In this respect, when Marx writes of the ‘economic base’ and the ‘ideological superstructure’ of society, he was making a generalisation about the broad sweep of history, to the effect that people ultimately will follow their material self-interests, whatever else they may imagine about their motivations. However, according to Marx, the dynamics of history were shaped precisely by the clash of those interests (class struggle), and that clash could not be understood simply in terms of economic self-interest, because it also involved human traditions and values. The end result of economic determinism in this view is b oth economism (a narrow focus on how people earn their livelihood) and economic reductionism (the attempt to reduce a complex social reality to one factor – i.e. the economic – such that this one factor causes all other aspects of society). This plays directly into the hands of the business class, and ultimately ended in an anti-working class position, whereby the allegiance of the working class is merely a ‘tool’ to be used by the political class to modernise an economy, with the aid of forced labour if need be.[13] Taking the above points into account, it could be argued that Marx considered economic determinism as the creative force in human evolution. He clearly advocated a change in economic structure as the only feasible means by which to effect social change and to refine the intellectual make-up of humanity. His advocacy of the inevitability of worldwide socialist revolution and communist society could certainly be described as deterministic in outlook. At the same time it should be remembered that Marx was fully aware that the economic aspects of life did not constitute the sum total of mankind’s preoccupation and social make-up. On this basis, therefore, it would appear that Marx’s historical materialism is compatible with the specific notion of economic determinism, rather than falling under the broader category of determinism as a whole. Bibliography Berlin, Isaiah, ‘Historical Materialism’ in Tom Bottomore (ed.), Karl Marx (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973) Easton, Loyd D. Guddat, Kurt H. (trans. ed.), Writings of the young Marx on philosophy and society (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1967) Elster, Jon, An Introduction to Karl Marx (Cambridge: CUP, 1986) Fleischer, Helmut, Marxism and History (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1973) McLellan, David, The Thought of Karl Marx: An Introduction (London: Macmillan, 1971) Rader, Melvin, Marx’s Interpretation of History (New York: OUP, 1979) Web references Economic determinism, Online Dictionary of the Social Sciences, maintained by Athabasca University, Alberta, Canada (http://bitbucket.icaap.org) Karl Marx Friedrich Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party, Australian National University (www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/classics/manifesto.html) 1 Footnotes [1] It is almost impossible to discuss Marx’s theories on history without referring to Friedrich Engels, Marx’s lifelong friend, fellow philosopher and co-author of many works. The influence of Engels has been intentionally minimalised for the purposes of this essay as the issue in question refers to Marx alone. [2] Economic determinism, Online Dictionary of the Social Sciences, maintained by Athabasca University, Alberta, Canada (http://bitbucket.icaap.org, accessed July 28, 2006). [3] Helmut Fleischer, Marxism and History (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1973), passim. [4] ibid. [5] Jon Elster, An Introduction to Karl Marx (Cambridge: CUP, 1986), p. 103. [6] Isaiah Berlin, ‘Historical Materialism’ in Tom Bottomore (ed.), Karl Marx (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1973), p. 56. [7] Isaiah Berlin, ‘Historical Materialism’ in Tom Bottomore, op. cit., pp. 58-60; Melvin Rader, Marx’s Interpretation of History (New York: OUP, 1979), pp. 12-14. [8] Jon Elster, op. cit., p. 104. Marx published A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy in London in 1859. Marx and Engles co-wrote The German Ideology during the spring of 1845. It was published posthumously by the Marx-Engels Institute in Moscow in 1932. [9] Jon Elster, op. cit., pp. 104-105. [10] ibid, pp. 106-108. [11] Loyd D. Easton Kurt H. Guddat (trans. ed.), Writings of the young Marx on philosophy and society (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1967), pp. 426, 467 et seq, reproduced in David McLellan, The Thought of Karl Marx: An Introduction (London: Macmillan, 1971), p. 36. [12] Karl Marx Friedrich Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party (first published 1848), accessed online at the Australian National University website (http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/ marx/classics/manifesto.html, July 30, 2006). [13] Helmut Fleischer, op. cit., pp. 45 et seq.

Cognitive psychology Essay

Cognitive psychology focuses on how a person interprets a picture or message. For example, a double figure drawing such as the top down example below is one part of the cognitive thinking process. Another mental exercise is the bottom-up perception of drawings and messages.   Often times, the judge in court cases would ask the professional interpretation of the psychologist to help mitigate or aggravate the current sentence of a criminal offender. The following paragraphs explain in detail what cognitive psychology means. 1. what advice would you give a judge to persuade her or him of the potential danger of wrongful conviction based on eyewitness testimony as the sole or primary kind of evidence? Support your claim using cognitive psychology research. The judge should not base his sentencing only on the sole eyewitness’ statement. For, the judgment should be mitigated or aggravated by the professional opinion of the psychologist.  Ã‚   It is a standard procedure for the U.S. judge to ask the Forensic psychologist  Ã‚   to give a psychological profile of the defendant. The psychologist will then make a profile of the psychological well –being of the person charged in court. The psychologist then applies the theories of cognitive psychology to determine the behavior, pathology and motivation and submit his findings to the judge. The judge will then include the psychologist’s professional opinion increase the defendant’s sentence for aggravating reasons (Burke 1). On the other hand, the judge could also decrease the defendant’s sentence for mitigating reasons. And the psychologist’s findings will be used either as an aggravating or mitigating evidence.   Normally, the psychologist can draw up the behavioral tendencies of the defendant by viewing the other evidences on the crime scene, the statements of various witness, friends, neighbors and relatives and prior psychological findings.   The psychologist is very much needed in the juvenile courts because the child’s behavior is not as mature as those who are eighteen yrs old and above. Generally, the juveniles commit crimes because of their psychological growth is not normal ( or abnormal?), The psychologist can recommend to the judge to transfer the child to child rehabilitation center for psychological rehabilitation(Barsalou 5). Likewise, the psychologist can persuade the judge to lessen the sentence in adult criminal cases.   The psychologist can opine that the sexual offense was psychologically caused by the defendant’s state of mind at the time of the crime. He or she could have been abnormal then. The psychologist can recommend a plea bargaining agreement with the Judge using his psychological findings in order to reduce the sentence that has been mandated by the criminal laws of the United States( Berger 10). In addition, the psychologist can issue his opinion to the courts regarding the reliability of the lone witness’ psychological profile. For, the witness may not qualify as a lone witness if the psychologist opines that witness’ statements were hallucinations, a big lie, or simply made because of the witness had misinterpreted the situation as what is was not. The psychologist will then assess the stimuli – response   makeup (cognitive psychology) of the offender. The psychologist can also assess the criminal offender’s impulse control and potential for the individual to commit crimes. Likewise, the psychologist can opine to the judge that he defendant cannot psychologically defend himself or herself in the witness stand (Gillespie , 27). This will then be a ground to decrease the sentence of the defendant upon conviction. To reiterate, the psychologist can tell the court that the defendant was psychologically abnormal when he or she committed the crime. Thus, the judge must compulsorily use the psychologist’s evaluations of the defendants and the witnesses to plug the holes in his sentencing process. Also, the sex offenders would need the psychologist’s hand to help them. The psychologist would then tell the court that the sexual offender’s sentence be reduced to being jailed at the Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center.   The psychologist would go about by stating that the defendant’s psychological makeup is the main cause of his continuing spree of sexual abuse cases. 2. Describe what implicit memory is. Based on Reber (1993) how is implicit learning and memory different from explicit learning and memory. Implicit memory states that prior experiences affect the current behavior of a person even though the person does not intentionally exert a single effort to ponder over his or her prior experiences.   Likewise, repressed memories of the past are equated with implicit memory.   For example, improving ones’ job performance falls under implicit memory and learning. This is the main reason why many companies prefer to hire and give higher salaries to people who have many years of hands –on experience behind them when they apply for a job. Definitely, a carpenter that has worked in house construction for the past twenty years would definitely be more skilled than a carpenter has tucked under his belt only one week’s hands –on experience.   Whereas, explicit memory is the conscious and intentional recalling of a person’s past experiences and informational data (French 26). A very clear example is trying to remember what today’s itinerary or hectic schedule is.   It would include a ride in the park with the family, a meeting with the board of directors in the company, or a customer dropping by to purchase new products. Another is trying to recall the details asked for in the Civil war classroom test. Further, trying to recall the ATM password or the email address log –in username and password when withdrawing money from the ATM machines falls under Explicit learning and memory. In short, explicit memory and learning entails effort exertion which includes thinking about one’s past experiences.   It also includes talking about one’s past experiences and writing them done. Further, it includes studying ones’ past experiences. For, they will surely increase one’s expertise on doing a specific job assignment (Esgate 15). Reber stated that implicit learning refers to the variances in the behavior of a person that is influenced by past experiences. However, the person is not aware or exerts effort to try to recall the past experiences. Reber proved his theory through countless experiments including probability learning.   His probability experiments prove that the subjects were able to recognize or learn the variance in probabilities of recurring events without their knowing that their prior experiences in the same situation have improved their changes of choosing the next probable event. One Reber experiment shows that the subjects were placed in a training phase. The subjects were told to observe   1,000 scenes at the rate of two scenes in one second in one experiment. The findings of this experiment shows that the subjects were able to learn what the next outcome would be in increasing accuracy as the test went on (Reder, and Schunn 46). Another Reber experiment shows that a person that solves several problems of the same will increase his or her speed and accuracy in solving such problems due to experience. However, the subjects were not aware of that their prior acts had influenced their current speed and accuracy. This is very true in classroom math exercises (Reder, and Schunn 69). Reber further emphasizes that memory and learning consists of conscious (Explicit) and unconscious (Implicit) learning processes (O’Brien-malone, and Maybery 38).   And, Reber insists that the questionnaire index test is an explicit learning process (O’Brien-malone, and Maybery 38). 3. Define what cognitive psychology is about. Cognitive Psychology is that branch of psychology that delves into the process of how a person uses his mind to find solutions to problems, memory as well as communication. It had metamorphosed from the Gestalt school of Max Wertheirmer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka. However, it was Jean   Piaget who increased interest in Cognitive Psychology with his theory that people have different cognitive processes from infancy to old age. Naturally, he emphasized that child cognitive learning is much different from a married person’s cognitive learning. Going deeper, cognitive psychology involves how the brain solves mathematical and other real life problems. And, the cognitive scientists believe that the problem solving cognitive process boils down to the basic stimulus and response theory.   For, each stimulus gives different responses to different people (Fleck, 6). What are the main topics? History. Cognitive psychology had branched out from mainline psychology into its own specialized field in the 1950s and 1960s as discussed in Donald Broadbent’s masterpiece entitled Perception and Communication in 1958.   It focused on the processing of information with the incorporation of Donald Broadbent’s paradigm theory. Basically it was a study on how a person thinks and reasons as he tackles each problem or situation in real life or in the classroom. Broadbent emphasized that the brain is a the central processing unit of the human being.   Then, George Miller created the WordNet which is the foundation for many machine ontologies today. This was also the basis that has permeated from cognitive psychology to other fields like social psychology, personality psychology, abnormal psychology,developmental psychology.   Currently, current cognitive theories are being attacked from many sides. One such side is the dynamic system proponents. Further, cognitive psychology has gathered the fruits of researches in artificial intelligence and other fields of expertise in the 1960s and the 1970s (Esgate 15). Major research areas.   Currently, the major research areas of cognitive psychology are general perception, psychophysics, attention, pattern recognition, object recognition and time sensation (Berger ). Cognitive psychologists.   The list of cognitive psychologists continues to grow through the years. Some of the more famous ones are Johan Anderson, Robbie Case, Lev Vygotsksy, Alan Baddeley, Frederic Barlett, Aaron T. Beck, Donald Broadbent, Reber, Jerome Bruner, Fergus, Craik, Keneth Craik, Hermann Ebbinghaus. Albert Ellis, and Jean Piaglet (Berger, 4). What are some basic assumptions? Cognitive process involves a stimulus and the corresponding response to such stimulus. Basically, cognitive theory states the problems in math and other real life situations can be easily accomplished with the use of algorithm. Algorithm is the set of rules that will give a specific solution for a set of inputs. For example, one plus one (inputs) is equal to two ( the algorithm here is to count how many ones are there). Here, the rules for cognitively solving problems are rather vague or too complex for the simple -minded person to comprehend.  Ã‚   Logically, there is another way of cognitively solving problems. This is what is called in psychology circles as heuristics. In sharp contrast, heuristics shows that the rules of solving classroom and real life problems are clearly understood but the final solution varies from one situation to another. What are some of the different methods employed by cognitive psychologists? The psychologists employ several methods to deepen their study of cognitive psychology. One such method is the scientific method. Another method is to use a person’s cognitive outfit in terms of belief, motivation and desire that are part of the mental processes. But, they always use subjects in their researches on how a person interprets a picture, a messages or other types of communication signals passing his or her way.

The Effects Of Childhood Maltreatment On Children And...

According to the Administration for Children and Families (2013), there are one million verified cases of childhood maltreatment reported annually in the United States. This constitutes approximately 35% of the childhood population in the United States. Of these cases, 79.5% were the result of neglect, emotional abuse, and abandonment. Over 3% of these children attempted or completed suicide (Administration for Children and Families, 2013). Dr. Todd Herrenkohl and colleagues conducted a 30 year longitudinal study children in the child welfare system, Head Start programs, and daycare centers (Herrenkohl, Hong, Kilka, Russo, 2013). Throughout the study, Herrenkohl conducted the GAD general anxiety assessment, the Beck Depression†¦show more content†¦One’s experiences in early childhood create the foundation from which perceptions of the self and others are created (Marmarosh Tasca, 2013 and Snyder, Shapiro, Treleaven, 2012). These experiences are associated with the development of neural pathways in the brain that control responses to stress (Marmarosh Tasca, 2013), and impact attachments and relationships in adulthood (Snyder, Shapiro, Treleaven, 2012). The diagnosis of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) has been used for nearly three decades (Kisiel, Fehrenback, Torgersen, 2014). It has been proposed that the various consequences of interpersonal traumas, particularly in young children, are not sufficiently explained by the diagnosis of PTSD (Kisiel et al., 2014). According to Carruth (2006), psychological trauma is the most frequently observed complication in those in recovery from alcohol and substance use disorders. Failing to diagnose and treat those individuals with substance use disorders who have also gone through some form of trauma early in life perpetuates the cycle of addiction. Attachment theory, first hypothesized by Bowlby over five decades ago, has seen resurgence in recent years (De Rick, Vanheule; Verhaeghe, 2009). Significant aspects of attachment theory have reinforced the idea that the relationship