Solar Updraft Tower free essay sample

The future of this earth and mankind substantially depends on our ability to slow down the population increase in the Third World by civilized means. The key is to increase the standard of living, to overcome the inhumane poverty and deprivation. To achieve this traditional means will not suffice any longer as exemplified by a paradoxon: Those countries where agriculture provides more than 20 % of the gross national product are those also stricken by starvation! Development requires mechanization and energy. Energy consumption increases proportionally to the gross national product or prosperity while simultaneously the population growth will decrease exponentially. Many developing countries possess hardly any energy sources and their population doubles every 15 to 30 years! The results are commonly known: Civil wars and fundamentalism. If these developing countries are provided with only a humane and viable minimum of energy the global energy consumption will drastically increase! Who could supply such an enormous amount of energy without an ecological breakdown (because poor countries cannot afford environmental protection) and without safety hazards (because they are not acquainted with the safety requirements for nuclear power plants) and without a rapid depletion of natural resources at the expense of future generations? The sun! Many of these countries are lavishly provided with solar radiation in their desert areas. We will write a custom essay sample on Solar Updraft Tower or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This is common knowledge, stated already in Agenda 21 of the Rio-UN-conference, everybody is talking about it, and nobody does anything. Why? Because apparently it must be a well-kept secret that large-scale solar energy utilization is possible today and that it is affordable and competitive! SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLE INVOLVED The use of three old technologies Man learned to make active use of solar energy at a very early stage: greenhouses helped to grow food, chimney suction ventilated and cooled buildings and windmills ground corn and pumped water. The solar chimneys three essential elements glass roof collector, chimney, and wind turbines have thus been familiar from time immemorial A solar-thermal chimney simply combines them in a new way . Air is heated by solar radiation under a low circular glass roof open at the periphery; this and the natural grounds below it form a hot air collector. Continuous 24 hours-operations is guaranteed by placing tight water-filled tubes under the roof. The water heats up during the daytime and emits its heat at night. These tubes are filled only once, no further water is needed. In the middle of the roof is a vertical chimney with large air inlets at its base. The joint between the roof and the chimney base is airtight. As hot air is lighter then cold air it rises up the chimney. Suction from the chimney then draws in more hot air from the collector, and cold air comes in from the outer perimeter. Thus solar radiation causes a constant updraught in the chimney. The energy this contains is converted into mechanical energy by pressure-staged wind turbines at the base of the chimney, and into electrical energy by conventional generators. A single solar chimney with a suitably large glazed roof area and a high chimney can be designed to generate 100 to 200 MW continuously 24 h a day. Thus even a small number of solar chimneys can replace a large nuclear power station. Solar chimneys operate simply and have a number of other advantages: -The collector can use all solar radiation, both direct and diffused. This is crucial for tropical countries where the sky is frequently overcast. The other major large scale solar-thermal power plants, parabolic through and central receiver systems, which apply concentrators and therefore can use only direct radiation, are at a disadvantage there. Due to the heat storage system the solar chimney will operate 24h on pure solar energy. The water tubes laying under the glass roof absorb part of the radiated energy during the day and release it into the collector at night. Thus solar chimneys produce electricity at night as well. Solar chimneys are particularly reliable and not liable to break down, in comparison with other solar generating plants. Turbines, transmission and generator subject to a steady flow of air are the plants only moving parts. This simple and robust structure guarantees operation that needs little maintenance and of course no combustible fuel. Unlike conventional power stations (and also other solar-thermal power station types), solar chimneys do not need cooling water. This is a key advantage in the many sunny countries that already have major problems with drinking water. The building materials needed for solar chimneys, mainly concrete and glass, are available everywhere in sufficient quantities. In fact, with the energy taken from the solar chimney itself and the stone and sand available in the desert, they can be reproduced on site. Solar chimneys can be built now, even in less industrially developed countries. The industry already available in most countries is entirely adequate for their requirements. No investment in high-tech manufacturing plant is needed. Even in poor countries it is possible to build a large plant without high foreign currency expenditure by using their own resources and work-force; this creates large numbers of jobs and dramatically reduces the capital investment requirement and the cost of generating electricity. Solar chimneys need large collector areas. As economically viable operation of solar electricity production plants is confined to regions with high solar radiation, this is not a fundamental disadvantage, as such regions usually have enormous deserts and unutilized areas. And so land use is not a particularly significant factor, although of course deserts are also complex biotopes that have to be protected. The technology 3. 1. The collector Hot air for the solar chimney is produced by the greenhouse effect in a simple air collector consisting only of a glass or plastic film covering stretched horizontally two to six meters above the ground. The height of the covering increases adjacent to the chimney base, so that the air is diverted to vertical movement with minimum friction loss. This covering admits the short-wave solar radiation component and retains long-wave radiation from the heated ground. Thus the ground under the roof heats up and transfers its heat to the air flowing radially above it from the outside to the chimney. 3. 2. The energy storage Water filled black tubes are laid down side by side on the soil under the glass roof collector. They are filled with water once and remain closed thereafter, so that no evaporation can take place. The volume of water in the tubes is selected to correspond to a water layer with a depth of 5 to 20 cm depending on the desired power output characteristics. 3. 3. The chimney The chimney itself is the plants actual thermal engine. It is a pressure tube with low friction loss (like a hydroelectric pressure tube or penstock) because of its optimal surface- volume ratio. The upthrust of the air heated in the collector is approximately proportional to the air temperature rise DTcoll in the collector and the volume, (i. e. he height Hc multiplied by the diameter Dc) of the chimney. In a large solar chimney the collector raises the temperature of the air by about 35 K. This produces an updraught velocity in the chimney of about 15m/s. It is thus possible to enter into an operating solar chimney plant for maintenance without difficulty. Chimneys 1,000 m high can be built without difficulty. The television tower in Toronto, Canada is almost 600 m high and serious plans are being made for 2, 000 metre skyscrapers in earthquake-ridden Japan. But all that is needed for a solar chimney is a simple, large diameter hollow cylinder, not particularly slender, and subject to very few demands in comparison with inhabited buildings. There are many different ways of building this kind of chimney. They are best built freestanding, in reinforced concrete. But guyed tubes, their skin made of corrugated metal sheet, as well as cable-net designs with cladding or membranes are also possible. All the structural approaches are well known and have been used in cooling towers. No special development is needed. 3. 4. The turbines Using turbines, mechanical output in the form of rotational energy can be derived from the air current in the chimney. Turbines in a solar chimney do not work with staged velocity like a free-running wind energy converter, but as a cased pressure-staged wind turbogenerator, in which, similarly to a hydroelectric power station, static pressure is converted to rotational energy using a cased turbine in this application installed in a pipe. The power output of a cased pressure-staged turbine of this kind is about eight times greater than that of a speed-stepped open-air turbine of the same diameter. Air speed before and after the turbine is about the same . The output achieved is proportional to the product of volume flow and the fall in pressure at the turbine. With a view to maximum energy yield the aim of the turbine regulation system is to maximize this product under all operating conditions. Blade pitch is adjusted during operation to regulate power output according to the altering airspeed and airflow. If the flat sides of the blades are perpendicular to the airflow, the turbine does not turn. If the blades are parallel to the air flow and allow the air to flow through undisturbed there is no drop in pressure at the turbine and no electricity is generated. Between these two extremes there is an optimum blade setting: the output is maximized if the pressure drop at the turbine is about two thirds of the total pressure differential available. 3. 5. A hydroelectric power station for the desert Solar chimneys are technically very similar to hydroelectric power stations so far the only really successful large scale renewable energy source: the collector roof is the equivalent of the reservoir, and the chimney of the penstock. Both power generation systems work with pressure-staged turbines, and both achieve low power production costs because of their extremely long life-span and low running costs. The collector roof and reservoir areas required are also comparable in size for the same electrical output. But the collector roof can be built in arid deserts and removed without any difficulty, whereas useful (often even populated) land is submerged under reservoirs. Solar chimneys work on dry air and can be operated without the corrosion and cavitation typically caused by water. They will soon be just as successful as hydroelectric power stations. Electricity yielded by a solar chimney is in proportion to the intensity of global solar radiation, collector area and chimney height. Optimum dimensions can be calculated only by including specific component costs (collector, chimney, turbines) for individual sites. And so plants of different sizes are built from site to site but always at optimum cost: if glass is cheap and concrete expensive then the collector will be large with a high proportion of double glazing and a relatively low chimney, and if glass is expensive there will be a smaller, largely single-glazed collector and a tall chimney. THE PROTOTYPE IN MANZANARES Detailed theoretical preliminary research and a wide range of wind tunnel experiments led to the establishment of an experimental plant with a peak output of 50 kW on a site made available by the Spanish utility Union Electrica Fenosa in Manzanares (about 150km south of Madrid) in 1981/82, with funds provided by the German Ministry of Research and Technology (BMFT). The aim of this research project was to verify, through field measurements, the performance projected from calculations based on theory, and to examine the influence of individual components on the plants output and efficiency under realistic engineering and meteorological conditions. To this end a chimney 195 m high and 10 m in diameter was built, surrounded by a collector 240 m in diameter. The plant was equipped with extensive measurement data acquisition facilities. The performance of the plant was registered second by second by 180 sensors. Since the type of collector roof primarily determines a solar chimneys performance costs, different building methods and materials for the collector roof were also to be tested in Manzanares. A realistic collector roof for large-scale plants has to be built 2 to 6 metres above ground level. For this reason the lowest realistic height for a collector roof for large-scale technical use, 2 metres, was selected for the small Manzanares plant. (For output, a roof height of 50 cm only would in fact have been ideal. Thus only 50 kW could be achieved in Manzanares, but this realistic roof height also permitted convenient access to the turbine at the base of the chimney. This also meant that experimental planting could be carried out under the roof to investigate additional use of the collector as a greenhouse. The experimental plant in Manzanares operated for about 15,000 hours from 1982 onwards. The following tests were run in the course of the project: In 1986 the structural improvement wo rk that made occasional operational interruptions necessary was completed. After that, from mid 1986 to early 1989 it was possible to run the plant on a regular daily basis, except for a period of four months which was set aside for special measurements and specific modifications. During this 32 month period, the plant ran, fully automatically, an average of 8. 9 hours per day for a total of 8611 operating hours. One person at the most was needed for supervision. Thus there is no doubt that solar chimneys can be built, run in the long term and reliably maintained even in countries that are technologically less developed. During the 32 month period, plant reliability was over 95 %. Sporadic storm damage to the old plastic film area of the collector was repaired without switching off the plant. The 5 per cent non-operational period was due to automatic plant switch-off at the weekend when the Spanish grid occasionally failed. DESIGNING LARGE SOLAR CHIMNEYS Measurements taken from the experimental plant in Manzanares and solar chimney thermodynamic behaviour simulation programs were used to design large plants with outputs of 200 MW and more. Detailed investigations, supported by extensive wind tunnel experiments, showed that thermodynamic calculations for collector, tower and turbine were very reliable for large plants as well. Despite considerable area and volume differences between the Manzanares pilot plant and a projected 100 MW facility, the key thermodynamic factors are of similar size in both cases. Using the temperature rise and wind speed in the collector as examples, the measured temperature rise at Manzanares was up to 17 K and the wind speed up to 12 etres per second, while the corresponding calculated figures for a 100 MW facility are 35 K and 16 metres per second. FINANCIAL FEASIBILITY This section discusses only the simplest, classical design of a solar updraft tower power plant, and variations are not considered. A solar updraft power station would require a large initial capital outlay, but would have relatively low operating cost. However, the capital outlay required is roughly the same as next-generati on nuclear plants such as the AP-1000 at roughly $5 per W of capacity. Like other renewable power sources there would be no cost for fuel. The cost per energy is largely determined by interest rates and years of operation, varying from 5 eurocent per kWh for 4% and 20 years to 15 eurocent per kWh for 12% and 40 years. A disadvantage of a solar updraft tower is the much lower conversion efficiency than concentrating solar power stations have, thus requiring a larger collector area and leading to higher cost of construction and maintenance. Financial comparisons between solar updraft towers and concentrating solar technologies contrast a larger, simpler structure against a smaller, more complex structure. The better of the two methods is the subject of much speculation and debate. A solar tower is expected to have less of a requirement for standby capacity from traditional energy sources than wind power does. Various types of thermal storage mechanisms (such as heat-absorbing surface material or salt water ponds) could be incorporated to smooth out power yields over the day/night cycle. Most renewable power systems (wind, solar-electrical) are variable, and a typical national electrical grid requires a combination of base, variable and on-demand power sources for stability. However, since distributed generation by intermittent power sources provides smoothing of the rate of change, this issue of variability can also be addressed by a large interconnected electrical super grid, incorporating wind farms, hydroelectric, and solar power stations. There is still a great amount of uncertainty and debate on what the cost of production for electricity would be for a solar updraft tower and whether a tower (large or small) can be made profitable. Schlaich et al. stimate a cost of electricity between 7 (for a 200 MW plant) and 21 (for a 5 MW plant) euro cents per kWh, but other estimates indicate that the electricity cannot possibly be cheaper than 25-35 cents per kWh. Compare this to LECs of approximately 3 Euro cents per KWh for a 100 MW wind or natural gas plant. No reliable electricity cost figures will exist until such time as actual data are available on a utility scale power plant, since cost predictions for a time scale of 25 years or more are unreliable. Energy Production Costs With the support of construction companies, the glass industry and turbine manufacturers a rather exact cost estimate for a 200 MW solar chimney could be compiled. We asked a big utility Energie Baden-Wurttemberg (formerly EVS/BW) to determine the energy production costs compared to coal- and combined cycle power plants based on equal and common methods. Table 1: Comparison between the energy production costs of a solar chimney (2 solar chimneys with 200 MW each) and 400 MW coal and combined cycle power plants according to the present business managerial calculations. Purely under commercial aspects with a gross interest rate of about 11 % and a construction period of 4 years during which the investment costs increase already by 30 %(! ) Electricity from solar chimneys is merely 20 % more expensive than that from coal. In case of the solar chimney the interest on the fix investment governs the price of electricity, whereas in the case of fossil fuel power plants the variable fuel costs are the deciding factor. By just reducing the interest rate to 8 % electricity from solar chimneys would become competitive today. In low-wage-countries the costs will decrease further especially those of the glass roof collector which alone amounts to 50 % of the overall costs. On the other hand there are a number of advantages: 1)No ecological harm and no consumption of resources, not even for the construction. Solar chimneys predominantly consist of concrete and glass which are made from sand and stone plus self-generated energy. Consequently in desert areas with inexhaustible sand and stone solar chimneys can reproduce themselves. A truly sustainable source of energy! )The (high) investment costs are almost exclusively due to labour costs. This creates jobs, and a high net product for the country with increased tax income and reduced social costs (= human dignity, social harmony), and in addition no costly imports of coal, oil, gas which is especially beneficial for the developing countries releasing means for their development. We have no choice but to do something for the energy consent, the environment and above all for the billions of underprivileged people in the Third World. But we should not offer them hand-outs, a multiple of which we deceitfully regain by imposing a high interest rate on their debt. Instead we should opt for global job sharing. If we buy solar energy form Third World countries, they can afford our products. A global energy market with large scale solar energy generation supplementing substantially hydropower, fossil and nuclear fuels is not an utopian dream! Therefore, now it is absolutely essential to build and operate a large solar chimney.

Akij group Essays

Akij group Essays Akij group Essay Akij group Essay We also thankful to our dear teacher Mafia Islam to teach us and help us all about advice that helped immensely in preparing this report. ; In this paper we want to focuses on about the organization culture and one of the implementation on a organization like: Kaki Group. ; Here we discussed about some of the different organizational culture, why we want to study about that and what type of culture followed by our reference Company Kaki Group. ; Here we also recommend some points about how their organization may improve. Presentation content SSL No Topic Presenter Introduction Objective Corporate Profile of Kaki Group 5 followed Kaki Group Jabs Advantage 6 Improvement Suggestions of the CO in Kaki Group 7 Conclusion Moisturizer Raman Khan Culture can help drive business results, but it takes a cultural audit to differentiate which elements of the culture can lead to superior performance. High the Performance when CO is effective and can be accepted by the employees. Low Performance when: the culture of the organization is not proper and transparent and it is not accepted by the employees High satisfaction when the employees are willing to adapt the organizational culture. Low satisfaction when the employee is unwilling to adapt the organizational culture. ; Kaki group is one of the biggest group of industries in Bangladesh. Has various type of company and various type of products all most all sectors of our country. C] For analysis of the portfolio we decided to do a term paper on organizational culture of Kaki group to know the organization culture of a biggest groups. L] In this Term paper, we worked on the organizational Practices on Kaki Group. At first we discussed about their organizational overview, history, management and about organizational culture of Kaki group . C] We took information from both primary and secondary sources. We also discussed in this paper about the whole organizational culture. 0 Finally we summed up the whole topic and specified them to different chapters and parts. The general objective of our report is to discussed the about the Organization culture and Its implementation on our reference company, the Kaki Group. We have focused on different sectors of their business. Specific Objective To explore different terms of organization culture. To define the enacted environment of an organization. To know the organization culture of an organization.. To discuss the organization cultured should followed by 5. And what should do to improve the organizational culture of Kaki group. ; A system of shared meanings and common beliefs held by organizational members that determines, in a large degree, how they act towards each other. ; Organizational culture is the workplace environment formulated from the interaction of the employees in the workplace. Organizational culture is defined by all experiences, strengths, weaknesses, upbringing and so forth of the employees. Of the life education, ; While executive leaders play a large role in defining organizational culture by their actions and leadership, all employees contribute to the organizational culture. 8 9 Establishing Maintaining Cultures Top Managemen t Philosophy of Organization s Founders Organizations Culture Selection Criteria Colonization 10 Corporate Profile of Kaki Group 0 the most organized distribution company in the country and one of the leading business conglomerates. CLC was established by Mr.. Sheikh Kaki Duding in 1950. C] Kaki birr factory Old is the first company of kaki group and which produce Hand Made Cigarettes. C] This sector gave a real boost o the revenue earning of the Group as well as making a substantial contribution to government exchequer 11 D Initially Kaki Corporation Limited was known as Main Enterprise. 0 In June 1 997 Main Enterprise was renamed as Mudding Enterprise Limited and C] in 2001 Mudding Enterprise Limited was again renamed as Kaki Corporation Limited.. With the passage of time, the Group undertook new ventures and presently there are 20 units of industries under its umbrella like catering jobs for more than 32,000 people in various categories. 12 Kaki group is in operation The Group has plans for setting up more projects. C] With the passage of time, the Group undertook new ventures and presently there are 20 units of industries under its umbrella like-? Kaki Corporation Limited Kaki Jute Mills Ltd Kaki Food Beverage Ltd products including carbonated drinks. Dacha Tobacco Industries Kaki Bid Factory Ltd Kaki Izard Factory Ltd Kaki Match Factory Ltd Kaki Textile Mills Ltd Kaki Particle Board Mills Ltd Kaki printing Packaging Ltd Kaki Cement Company Ltd Kaki Ceramics Company Ltd Kaki Pharmaceuticals Ltd Kaki Real Estate Ltd Ad-din Hospital(Philanthropic) S. A. F Industries Ltd Kaki Gas Company Ltd Kaki Computer Ltd Kaki Online Ltd Kaki Institute of Technology 13 ; Kaki Group is also involved in socio-cultural activities. The Group has been operating a sizeable orphanage free of charge in district town. ; The Group has also acquired a modern mother children hospital previously owned by Save the Children (ASK). The hospital is being operated as a Nan-profitable concern by Ad-Din Welfare Trust. 14 15 Organizational Culture followed by Kaki Group To observe the culture of Kaki group we stated that this group is highly Cultured. Management is extremely centralized in Kaki Group Of Industries. Although every employee is entitled to report to their direct supervisor and the supervisors are supposed to guide them and take decisions for them. C] All decisions are checked by the top of the organization hierarchy. Kaki Group follows a multi-channel cross communication style. The management of the group generally holds a meeting in alternate months or at a predetermined date to critically analyze the present near future situation of the group and its enterprises. C] All sister concerns are connected to the co rporate office through 1 6 inline to take rapid decisions. Headquarter is not apprised of important competitive information and, thus, is slow to respond ; Different divisions/functions/regions operate as silos. ; Poor horizontal communication leads to inefficiencies and conflicting messages to the market. ; The firm frustrates strong performers and fails to weed out poor performers ; Firms fail to attract and retain talent complacency takes hold because career advancement and compensation are not closely tied to performance ; Ineffective appraisals result in individuals advancing beyond their pap abilities. 7 Organization culture and Kaki Groups ; First they follow the Out come orientation culture ; Secondly they followed the Aggressiveness culture. ; Thirdly they followed Innovation Risk Taking culture ; They also follow less in the People orientation too less importance on Team Orientation and stability cue True. ; But they followed the culture of Attention to details in mid lev el management and top management. 18 Type of Culture High Innovation and Risk Taking Attention to detail Outcome oriented Aggressiveness Stability Low People oriented Team Oriented Medium 19 Our recommendation to Improve the CO in Kaki group 1 . The first step to breaking out of these typical and debilitating patterns of behavior is to recognize how and why the inherent traits of an organization influence, determine, and even predict the actions of each individual within it. These individuals each make decisions and tradeoffs every day that are bounded by their access to information and their anticipation of the incentives or consequences that will result from their actions. 0 The challenge in motivating superior performance then s to design an organization that aligns individual actions with the actions of others and the interests of the firm as a whole. Every day at every level yet few organizations have discovered the right formula. The organization needs to be sharing the details that for an employee realize themselves as a member of the company and they can easily motivate themselves.

Advertising’s Positive Influences Essay -- Advertising

Advertising influences people negatively; it convinces people to buy unneeded or unhealthy products. People often waste money on items because they tend to not notice the negative aspects of an item. A nice car, such as the 1954 Cadillac advertisement shown in Laurence Behrens’ and Leonard J. Rosen’s portfolio, is not a required product to have (580-581). However, this advertisement attracts one. When I saw various celebrities in proactive commercials, I decided to buy the product because I believed how effective it was. I did not have great results from Proactive; in fact, I experienced improved results with Aveeno’s Ultra-Calming Facial Cleanser. Although this product was three times cheaper, Proactive influenced me to buy their product by using celebrities in their commercials. Ads including products like cigarettes, influence people negatively because they are harmful to one’s health. As stated in a Camel cigarette ad, cigarettes are clearly dangerous to one’s health, â€Å"Warning: The Surgeon General Has Determined That Cigarette Smoking Is Dangerous to Your Health† (Behrens and Rosen 569). This ad shows a man attracting a woman while ligh... ... middle of paper ... ...me with friends by drinking Miller Beer. Fowles states that Coca-Cola refers to friendship by using the slogan, â€Å"a Coke and a smile† (545). This slogan is saying that if you buy Coca-Cola, you will be cheerful and affiliated. Advertisements influence people more positively than negatively by helping satisfy one’s need to nurture, achieve, and affiliate. To avoid negatively convincing advertisements, you need to appear cautious about a product. Be aware of the pros and cons of a product, look at product reviews, and understand the importance of an item before purchasing one. Works Cited Behrens, Laurence and Leonard J. Rosen, eds. Writing and Reading across the Curriculum. New York: Pearson/Longman, 2011. 566-594. Print. Fowles, Jib. â€Å"Advertising’s Fifteen Basic Appeals.† Writing and Reading across the Curriculum. New York: Pearson/Longman, 2011. 536-556 Print.

Legalization of Drugs in United States and Mexico (based on drug Research Paper

Legalization of Drugs in United States and Mexico (based on drug problems, trafficking, and cartels between these two countries) - Research Paper Example egardless of the legality; or allow the illegal status of drugs to continue to foster an environment and business that spreads violence, fear, insecurity, and the loss of life into American communities (Morris 36). Instead of wasting a lot of the government resources in trying to suppress the use of the drugs, the state should run a campaign that is information oriented so as to enlighten people about the risks and even possible consequences of using many kinds of drugs. This paper seeks to analyze whether the use of drugs should be legalized or not in the United States and Mexico based on the problems that are associated with the drugs that create cartel between the two countries. In the United States, purity of illegal Amphetamine in most cases is below 5%, and some of the tablets that are sold in the marketplaces are sold as ecstasy that do not contain MDMA at all. Instead, a lot of drugs are adulterated with other substances like chalk and even talcum to form completely different drugs. When the use of drugs are made legal then the state can get it very easy to regulate their sale and availability in the market to make sure that they are very safe and clean for human consumption and that they ate not cut with other substances that may be harmful to human life. Making the use of drugs illegal by the state increases the amount of crime that could have been easily eliminated if the drugs were legalized. Controlling the prices of the drugs would imply that drug addicts would leave their habits of stealing so as to fund their habits of using drugs. On the other hand state provided drugs services would keep out the drug dealers out of the business thereby starving the criminal gangs of their primary source of funds. Most Taliban get a lot of their revenues from the sale of poppies which gives a good ground for the heroin. They participate in doing this through intimidation farmers in the local regions who would otherwise sell their produce at the market places

Business Economics 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 3

Business Economics 2 - Essay Example In other words it is a closed private economy. Households supply labor to firms which in turn pay wages to the former. They buy goods and services produced by the firms. Next we introduce the government. The government is both a producer and a consumer at the same time. It is not only actively involved in production and consumption but also in charging taxes from and giving subsidies to the first two groups. In the next stage we introduce financial institutions such as banks. They enable the flows to be made smoother through their services such as cheques, credit cards and so on. However, still this is a domestic economy, though there are financial institutions in the rest of the world as well. So we finally introduce international trade, i.e. imports and exports. This is where the problem of balance of payments comes up. Balance of payments is the sum total of all imports and exports between a particular country (e.g. Britain) and the rest of the world in monetary terms. Therefore global financial institutions also come into the system. The circular flow diagram, indeed, adequately represents the fact that what is paid by a member of a given sector, say, firms to a member of another sector, say, households, is income for the latter while it’s expenditure for the former. However, in itself it’s a static model of a dynamic series of national and international flows. This is where its inadequacy as a representative model of income flows shows up. The balance of payments problem of Britain or for that matter of any other country is a dynamic one which necessitates a dynamic modeling structure to adequately capture the hidden forces of change. For instance in 2006, Britain’s total exports were equal to  £ 369,691 million while imports were equal to  £ 424,128 million. Thus the current account balance recorded a deficit of  £ 54,437 million in 2006 (Annual Blue Book of Statistics,

Placenta Previa Essay Example for Free

Placenta Previa Essay The topic I have chosen for my journal is placenta previa. My patient, 39-year-old M.C came in to the hospital for her fourth cesarean delivery. She has three healthy children that are twenty, ten and two years old. She is not a good candidate for vaginal birth because she has an android or heart shaped pelvis. The birth of her first child resulted in an emergency cesarean delivery and she has opted to have planned cesarean deliveries since then. During this pregnancy M. C had preeclampsia, which is an increase in blood pressure after 20 weeks gestation, which is also commonly accompanied by protenuria. During this pregnancy M.C also had placenta previa, which is a placental implantation in the lower uterine segment over or near the internal os of the cervix (Buckley Schub, 2013). M.C did not have this complication in her other 3 pregnancies. It is a very rare occasion occurring in only 2 per 1,000 births or 0.3-0.5% of all pregnancies in the United States. Placenta previa occurs during the second or third trimester. There are three types of placenta previa, which are total, partial and marginal. M.C presented with marginal placenta previa also known as low lying, which occurs when the edge of the placenta reaches the internal cervical os (Buckley Schub, 2013). The cause of placenta previa is not known but it may be from abnormal vascularization due to a prior uterine injury (Buckley Schub, 2013). M.C presented with vaginal bleeding during her pregnancy and that is when she found out about her condition. Placenta previa is the most common cause of bleeding in the second half of pregnancy (Buckley Schub, 2013). If a patient presents with sudden, painless vaginal bleeding beyond 20 weeks gestation than placenta previa should be suspected. If placenta previa is suspected the use of a transvaginal ultrasound is the most useful diagnostic tool and has an accuracy of 100% in diagnosing placenta previa. After M.C was diagnosed with placenta previa she was ordered to be on bed rest for the rest of her pregnancy and was monitored very closely by her obstetrician. There are many potential complications that come with placenta previa and a few are premature rupture of membranes, preterm birth, placental abruption, postpartum hemorrhage, anemia, infection disseminated intravascular coagulation, shock, renal failure, thrombophlebitis and maternal or fetal death (Buckley Schub, 2013). According to Buckley Schub, (2013) â€Å" for women who have had multiple cesarean deliveries the risk for placenta previa can reach 10%† and M.C had three previous cesarean sections which could be a reason why she developed this condition. M.C was carrying a boy and placenta previa is also more common in pregnancies with male fetuses (Buckley Schub, 2013). Fortunately M.C was able to carry her baby boy to term but 50% of women with placenta previa have a preterm delivery. The treatment goals for patients with placenta previa is to monitor the mothers vital signs, vaginal bleeding and watch for physiologically signs of hemorrhage, shock and infection. Closely monitor the fetal heart tones for any type of distress such as bradycardia, tachycardia and late and variable decelerations. Closely monitor post-surgical patients for bleeding, infection and other complications. Assess the patient’s anxiety level and any knowledge deficits the patient might have regarding placenta previa. Provide the patient is emotional support, education regarding the condition and reassurance that the prognosis is usually good.

Critical Analysis of Shakespeares Hamlet Essay -- Shakespeare Hamlet

Critical Analysis of Shakespeare's Hamlet What is mans' purpose in life? Is there a purpose? If there isn't, then is it wise to end it, despite the fact that there might be nothing better? In Hamlet, by William Shakespeare, Hamlet struggles with these and other issues. He states that the question of life is "To be, or not to be...?" Is existence really worth the troubles of life? In this monologue, Hamlet is wondering what is his purpose. He asserts that the only reason people endure their horrible lives is the uncertainty of what lies after death. "Who would fardels bear, to grunt and sweat under a weary life, but that the dread of something after death..." Is it noble to suffer, and is life worth all its misery? Hamlet must question himself to discover the answers. At the point in Hamlet when this famous soliloquy takes place, Hamlet has many reasons to be questioning his existence. Hamlet is visited by the ghost of his late father, who explains that he was murdered by Hamlet's uncle, who is Hamlet's mother's new husband. His father cannot rest until Hamlet has gotten revenge. Hamlet's father has just been murdered, his friends are sent to spy on him, his lover is forbidden to see him, and Hamlet feels that his life is pointless and miserable. "The pangs of disprized love, the law's delay, the insolence of office, and the spurns that patient merit of the unworthy takes..." These are the miseries that Hamlet must endure. This is why he makes this s...

Photoshop Cs5

ADOBE ® PHOTOSHOP ® CS5 2010/5/5  © 2010 Adobe Systems Incorporated and its licensors. All rights reserved. Using Adobe ® Photoshop ® CS5 for Windows ® and Mac OS ® This user guide is protected under copyright law, furnished for informational use only, is subject to change without notice, and should not be construed as a commitment by Adobe Systems Incorporated. Adobe Systems Incorporated assumes no responsibility or liability for any errors or inaccuracies that may appear in the informational content contained in this guide.This user guide is licensed for use under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 3. 0 License. This License allows users to copy, distribute, and transmit the user guide for noncommercial purposes only so long as (1) proper attribution to Adobe is given as the owner of the user guide; and (2) any reuse or distribution of the user guide contains a notice that use of the user guide is governed by these terms. The best way to prov ide notice is to include the following link. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3. / Adobe, the Adobe logo, Adobe Garamond, Adobe Premiere, AdobePS, Acrobat, Acrobat Capture, After Effects, Caflisch Script, Creative Suite, Distiller, Dreamweaver, Fireworks, Flash, FrameMaker, GoLive, Illustrator, ImageReady, InCopy, InDesign, Lightroom, PageMaker, Photomerge, Photoshop, PostScript, Streamline, and Version Cue are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Adobe Systems Incorporated in the United States and/or other countries. Microsoft, OpenType, Windows, and Windows Vista are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and/or other countries.Apple, Mac, Macintosh, and Mac OS are trademarks of Apple Inc. , registered in the U. S. and other countries. IBM and OS/2 are trademarks of International Business Machines Corporation in the United States, other countries, or both. Java is a tradem ark or registered trademark of Sun Microsystems, Inc. in the United States and other countries. Intel is a trademark or registered trademark of Intel Corporation in the U. S. and other countries. Helvetica is a registered trademark of trademark of Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG exclusively licensed through Linotype Library GmbH, and may be registered in certain jurisdictions.All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Updated Information/Additional Third Party Code Information available at http://www. adobe. com/go/thirdparty. The Spelling portion of this product is based on Proximity Linguistic Technology. The Proximity Hyphenation System  ©1989 All rights reserved Proximity Technology, Inc. Proximity and Linguibase are registered trademarks of Proximity Technology Inc. This product includes software developed by the Apache Software Foundation (www. apache. org). This product contains either BSAFE and/or TIPEM software by RSA Data Security, Inc.This product includes cryptographic software written by Eric Young ([email  protected] com). This software is based in part on the work of the Independent JPEG Group. PANTONE ® Colors displayed in the software application or in the user documentation may not match PANTONE-identified standards. Consult current PANTONE Color Publications for accurate color. PANTONE ® and other Pantone, Inc. trademarks are the property of Pantone, Inc.  © Pantone, Inc. , 2006. Pantone, Inc. is the copyright owner of color data and/or software which are licensed to Adobe Systems Incorporated to distribute for use only in combination with Adobe Photoshop.PANTONE Color Data and/or Software shall not be copied onto another disk or into memory unless as part of the execution of Adobe Photoshop. 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Adobe agrees to comply with all applicable equal opportunity laws including, if appropriate, the provisions of Executive Order 11246, as amended, Section 402 of the Vietnam Era Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974 (38 USC 4212), and Section 503 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended, a nd the regulations at 41 CFR Parts 60-1 through 60-60, 60-250, and 60-741.The affirmative action clause and regulations contained in the preceding sentence shall be incorporated by reference. 2010/5/5 iii 1 2 : : †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 â€Å" † â€Å" † . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Adobe 3 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Kuler 5 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 6 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 2010/5/5 PHOTOSHOP CS5 iv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 8 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 9 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 10 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 2010/5/5 PHOTOSHOP CS5 v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 11 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 12 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 13 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 PDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Digimarc Photoshop 14 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 15 Web : Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Photoshop Photoshop Web 2010/5/5 PHOTOSHOP CS5 vi 16 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 (Photoshop Extended) (Photoshop Extended) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Photoshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 (Photoshop Extended) (Photoshop Extended) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 (Photoshop Extended) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 17 3D 3D : 3D Photoshop Extended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 (Photoshop Extended) 3D (Photoshop Extended) 3D 18 : (Photoshop Extended) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 (Photoshop Extended) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 DICOM (Photoshop Extended) (Photoshop Extended) Photoshop MATLAB (Photoshop Extended) (Photoshop Extended) 19 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 20 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 TWAIN 21 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 2010/5/5 1 1 : 8 â€Å" † 185 â€Å" † 274 † 132 â€Å" † â€Å" HDR Pro 61 â€Å" HDR† 109 â€Å" HDR HDR † HDR 249 † 259 â€Å" † â€Å" 150 â€Å" † 138 † 3D 2D 3D 3D â€Å" † (Photoshop Extended)† 448 â€Å"3D Adobe Ray Tracer (Photoshop Extended)† â€Å" 3D 463 â€Å" 3D (Photoshop Extended)† 452 â€Å" â€Å"3D † CS Review CS Review Adobe Brid ge CS5 Adobe Bridge Mini Bridge RAW ISO Camera Raw Web Mini Bridge Photoshop Camera Raw 2010/5/5 PHOTOSHOP CS5 2 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Windows Mac OS 127 136 269 129 223 â€Å" â€Å" â€Å" â€Å" â€Å" † 205 â€Å" † † † † 188 â€Å" † 379 GPU â€Å" † â€Å" â€Å" 64 Mac OS † 124 â€Å" † † 79 64 Windows 10% 43 â€Å" † 2010/5/5 3 2 : Adobe ® Creative Suite ® 5 A B C D E G F H A. 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Organization for Efficient Management Essay

â€Å"Sound organization structure is an essential prerequisite of efficient management† – Discuss this statement and point out the various principles which should be followed in developing organization structure Introduction Organization is the backbone of management. Without efficient organization, no management can perform its functions smoothly. Sound organization contributes greatly to the continuity and success of the enterprise. Once A. Carnegie, an American industrialist, said, â€Å"Take away our factories, take away our trade, our avenues of transportation, and our money. Leave nothing but our organization, and in four years we shall have re-established ourselves†. That shows the significance of managerial skills and organization. However, good organization structure does not by itself produce good performance – just as a good constitution does not guarantee great presidents or good laws a moral society. But a poor organization structure makes good performance impossible, no matter how good the individuals may be. The right organizational structure is the necessary foundation; without it the best performance in all other areas of management will be ineffectual and frustrated. CONCEPT OF ORGANISATION STRUCTURE Organisation structure may be defined as the established pattern of relationships among the components of the organisation. Organisation structure in this sense refers to the network of relationships among individuals and positions in an organisation. Jennifer and Gareth have defined organisation structure as the formal system of task and reporting relationships that controls, coordinates and motivates employees so that they cooperate and work together to achieve an organisation’s goals. In fact organisation structure describes the organisation framework. Just as human beings have skeletons that define their parameters, organisations have structures that define-theirs. It is like the architectural plan of a building. Just as the architect considers various factors like cost, space, special features needed etc. while designing a good structure, the managers too must look into factors like benefits of specialisation, communication problems, problems in creating authority levels etc., before designing the organisation structure. The manager determines the work activities to get the job done, writes job descriptions, and organises people into groups and assigns them to superiors. He fixes goals and deadlines and establishes standards of performance. Operations are controlled through a reporting system. The whole structure takes the shape of a pyramid. The structural organisation implies the following things :  · The formal relationships with well-defined duties and responsibilities;  · The hierarchical relationships between superior and subordinates within the organisation;  · The tasks or activities assigned to different persons and the departments;  · Coordination of the various tasks and activities;  · A set of policies, procedures, standards and methods of evaluation of performance which are formulated to guide the people and their activities. The arrangement which is deliberately planned is the formal structure of organisation. But the actual operations and behaviour of people are not always governed by the formal structure of relations. Thus, the formal arrangement is often modified by social and psychological forces and the operating structure provides the basis of the organisation. Sound organization is an essential prerequisite of efficient management. It helps an organization in the following ways: 1. Enlarges abilities: It helps individuals to enlarge their capabilities. Division of work enables an individual to specialize in the job in which he is proficient, leading to better utilization of resources and talents. 2. Facilitates administration: It facilitates administration by avoiding waste motions, overlapping work and duplication of effort. Departmentation enables proper planning of work. Confusion and misunderstanding, over who is to perform what work, is avoided by specifying the role of managers clearly. Proportionate and balanced emphasis is put on various activities. 3. Facilitates growth and diversification:Sound organization helps in keeping activities under constant vigil and control. The organization can undertake more activities without dislocation. Talents and resources are put to good use. Opportunities are seized quickly and exploited fully, which ultimately pave way for growth and diversification. 4. Permits optimum use of resources: Human, technical and material resources are put to good use. Right persons are given right jobs. There is proper allocation of work. People know that they are supposed to do, well in advance. Necessary functions are determined and assigned, so that personnel and physical facilities are utilized effectively. 5. Stimulates creativity. It offers stimulating opportunities to people at all levels, to use their skills on jobs best suited to their nature. Delegation helps people at lower levels to do more challenging work. The higher ups, in turn, can concentrate on strategic issues putting their creative abilities to good use. 6. Facilitates coordination: Organization is an important way of achieving coordination among different departments of an enterprise. Clear authority relationships and proper assignment of work facilitates the task of achieving coordination at all levels. Poor organization leads to improper arrangement of duties and responsibilities. As a result, unimportant and trivial issues are given top priority. Activities that should be integrated or centralized are spread out and put to improper supervision. Incompetent individuals are overused while talented people are under utilized. Delays, duplications and waste motions occur with frustrating regularity. Expenses mount up. These would create utter confusion, chaos and conflict. Poor organization may mean improper arrangement of facilities and failure to achieve goals of objectives, management thinkers have laid down certain statements from time to time, from certain generally accepted understandings, which may be called the principles of organization. The principles are guidelines for planning an efficient organization structure. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the principles of organization is essential for good organization. The important principles of organization 1. Consideration of Objectives. An enterprise strives to accomplish certain objectives. Organization serves as a tool to attain these objectives. The objectives must be stated in clear terms as they play an important role in determining the type of structure, which should be developed. The principle of consideration of objectives states that only after the objectives have been stated, an organization structure should be developed to achieve them. 2. Division of Work and Specialization. The entire work in the organization should be divided into various parts so that every individual is confined to the performance of a single job, as far as possible, according to his ability and aptitudes. This is also called the principle of specialization. More a person continues on a particular job, the better will be his performance. 3. Definition of Jobs. Every position in the organization should be clearly defined in relation to other positions in the organization. The duties and responsibilities assigned to every position and its relationship with other positions should be clearly defined so that there may not be any overlapping of functions. 4. Separation of Line and Staff Functions. Whenever possible, line functions should be separated from staff activities. Line functions are those, which accomplish the main objectives of the company. In many manufacturing companies, the manufacturing and marketing departments are considered to be accomplishing the main objectives of the business and so are called the line functions and other functions like personnel, plant maintenance, financing and legal are considered as staff functions. 5. Chain of Command. There must be clear lines of authority running from the top to the bottom of the organization. Authority is the right to decide, direct and coordinate. The organization structure should facilitate delegation of authority. Clarity is achieved through delegation by steps or levels from the top position to the operating level. From the chief executive, a line of authority may proceed to departmental managers, to supervisors or foremen and finally to workers. This chain of command is also known as scalar principle of organization. 6. Parity of Authority and Responsibility. Responsibility should always be coupled with corresponding authority. Each subordinate must have sufficient authority to discharge the responsibility entrusted to him. This principle suggests that if a plant manager in a multi-plant organization is held accountable for all activities in his plant, he should not be subject to orders from company headquarters specifying the quantity of raw materials he should buy or from whom he should purchase raw materials. If a supervisor is responsible for the quality of work of his department, he should not be asked to accept as a member of his workforce an employee who has been hired without consulting him. 7. Unity of Command. No one in the organization should report to more than one supervisor. Everyone in the organization should know to whom he reports and who reports to him. Stated simply, everyone should have only one boss. Receiving directions from several supervisors may result in confusion, chaos, conflicts and lack of action. So each member of the organization should receive directions from and report to one superior only. This will avoid conflict of command and help in fixing responsibilities. 8. Exceptional Matters. This principle requires that organization structure should be so designed that managers are required to go through the exceptional matters only. The subordinates should take all the routine decisions, whereas problems involving unusual matters and policy decisions should be referred to higher levels. 9. Span of Supervision. The span of supervision means the number of persons a manager or a supervisor can direct. If too less number of employees are reporting to a supervisor, his time will not be utilized properly. But, on the other hand, there is a limit to the number of subordinates that can be efficiently supervised by an executive. Both these points should be kept in mind while grouping and allocating the activities to various departments. It is difficult to give a definite number of persons a manager can direct. It will depend upon the nature of the work and a number of other factors. 10. Balance of Various Factors. There should be proper balance in the formal structure of the organization in regard to factors having conflicting claims, e.g., between centralization and decentralization, span of supervision and lines of communication and authority allocated to departments and personnel at various levels. 11. Communication. A good communication network is essential to achieve the objectives of an organization. No doubt the line of authority provides readymade channels of communication downward and upward, still some blocks in communication occur in many organizations. The confidence of the superior in his subordinates and two-way communication are the factors that unite an organization into an effectively operating system. 12. Flexibility. The organization structure should be flexible so that it can be easily and economically adapted to the changes in the nature of business as well as technical innovations. Flexibility of organization structure ensures the ability to change with the environment before something serious may occur. So the organization structure should be such that it permits expansion and contraction without disrupting the basic activities. 13. Continuity. Change is the law of nature. Many changes take place outside the organization. These changes must be reflected in the organization. For this, the form of organization structure must be able to serve the enterprise and to attain its objectives for a long period of time. Types of Organizational Structure in Management Small companies can use a variety of organizational structures. However, a small company’s organization structure must be designed to effectively meet its goals and objectives, according to the Lamar University article titled â€Å"Organizational Structure† on its website. Types of organizational structure in management can include flat structures as well as functional, product and geographical-structured organizations. Flat Organizational Structure Many small companies use a flat organizational structure, where very few levels of management separate executives from analysts, secretaries and lower-level employees. Flat organizations work best when a company has less than 20 employees, especially if the company employs one or two employees per department. One advantage of using a flat organizational structure for management is that decisions can be made relatively quickly. The flat organizational lacks the typical bureaucracy of taller organizational structures–those with many levels of management. Functional Organizational Structure A functional organizational structure is centered on job functions, such as marketing, research and development and finance. Small companies should use a functional organization when they want to arrange their organizational structure by department. For example, a small company may have a director, two managers and two analysts in the marketing department. The director would likely report to the Chief Executive Officer, or CEO, and both managers would report to the director. In addition, each manager may have an analyst reporting to them. A functional organizational structure works well when small companies are heavily project-focused. Directors can assign certain projects to managers, who can then divvy up tasks with their analysts. The department can then more effectively meet their project deadlines. Product Organzational Structure A product organizational structure has managers reporting to the president or head of the company by product type. Product organizational structures are primarily used by retail companies that have stores in various cities. However, stores in each city may still need a local human resources or marketing department to carry out functions locally. For example, a small department store company may have a vice president of sporting goods, housewares and general merchandise at the corporate office. One manager may report to each vice president. However, each manager may oversee the work of one or more field marketing employees who travel and handle local marketing stores in several states. These field marketing employees may work for the sporting goods manager one week in League City, Texas, then do merchandising for the housewares manager another week in the Sugarland, Texas, market. Geographical Organizational Structure The Small Business Administration is responsible for defining small businesses in different industries. For example, in manufacturing, the SBA usually considers a company with 500 or fewer employees a small business. Point is, small businesses are still large enough to use a geographical organizational structure. A geographical organizational structure is when companies decentralize the functional areas. For example, unlike the product organizational structure, there may be a local marketing, finance, accounting and research development person based in each region. For example, a small consumer products food company may be large enough to place a marketing research manager and analyst in each of six different regions. This can be important because consumers in various areas have different tastes. Hence, a geographical structure will enable the company to better serve the local market. ORGANISATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS The study of organisational structure is necessary to understand organisational effectiveness. In simple terms better the structure of an organisation more effective would be the organisation and vice versa. You must be aware that some organisations perform better and grow more rapidly than other. On the extreme side some organisations perform badly and within a short period of time go out of business. Determinants of Organisational Effectiveness Several factors influence the organisational effectiveness Managerial Policies and Practices Managerial policies and practices integrate the entire organisation, maintain balance among the interest groups in the organisation, and accommodate them with the external environment. Managerial policies and practices have a direct bearing on the Organisational effectiveness. The major managerial policies and practices are as follow : Strategy: A strategy is a plan for interacting with the competitive environment to achieve organizational goals. Goals define where does the organisation want to go and strategies define how will the organization reach there. In other words, strategy is the determination of basic long term goals of the organisation, the adoption of the courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary to achieve them. The strategy is the most important factor of an organisation which decides the future course of action for the organisation. New strategy is often selected based upon environmental needs, and then the top management attempts to redesign the orga nisation to achieve those ends. Strategy: A strategy is a plan for interacting with the competitive environment to achieve organizational goals. Goals define where does the organisation want to go and strategies define how will the organization reach there. In other words, strategy is the determination of basic long term goals of the organisation, the adoption of the courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary to achieve them. The strategy is the most important factor of an organisation which decides the future course of action for the organisation. New strategy is often selected based upon environmental needs, and then the top management attempts to redesign the organisation to achieve those ends. Decision-making: Decision-making is choosing among alternatives. It has close relationship with all traditional management functions. The decision that management makes has a profound impact on the success of an organisation. Rewards: Organisational success to a large extent depends on how is management able to gain support of its team by way of compensating them for the efforts they are making for the achievement of organizational goals. It is primarily meant to sustain employee morale and improve or maintain productivity. Communication: It is the linkages among members of the organisation whereby they exchange information. The organisational structure has to provide for a perfect communication among different members of the organisation. Organisational communication is the grease that enables any organisational change. Environmental Characteristics Organisational effectiveness is influenced to a great degree by the external environmental characteristics. It is dependent on how is the external environment predictable, complex and hostile to the organisation and its activity. The major characteristics are as follow : Predictability: Predictability refers to how certain or uncertain an organisation may be towards supply of various resources; human, raw material etc. It is an element of external environment. Complexity: Environment complexity refers to the heterogeneity and range of activities which are relevant to an organisation’s operations. How many diverse groups from external environment the organisations have to deal with. Hostility: A hostile environment is one in which the underpinning of the organisation is threatened. How is an organisation viewed by the people at large. You may recall the case of Union Carbide after the Bhopal gas leakage about the hostility of environment Employee characteristics The characteristics of the human resource could make or break an organisation. It is employee characteristics, which is reflected in the success or failure of an organisation. The major characteristics are as follow : Goals: Goals define where the organisation wants to go. Goals are intentions that an individual or an organisation would like to achieve in the course of their working. Goals provide a directional nature to people’s behaviour and guide their thoughts and actions. Skills: Skill is the ability to engage in a set of behaviour that are functionally related to one another and that lead to a desired performance in a given area. The skill can be technical, managerial, behavioural etc. Motives: A motive is an inner state of a person that energizes activates, or moves and directs towards the achievement of a pre defined goal. The motivated employees have high motives to perform better and achieve the targets. Attitudes: Attitudes are evaluative statements- either favourable or unfavourable concerning objects, events, or people. Attitudes influence job behaviour and hence organisational effectiveness. Values: Values represent basic convictions or a specific mode of conduct. It generally influences an individual’s attitude and behaviour. The value that a person holds influences his or her motivation and subsequently behaviour. Organisational Characteristics Organisational characteristics refer to the general conditions that exist within an organisation. Various organisational characteristics influence organisational effectiveness. The major characteristics are as follow: Structure: An organisational structure defines how are job tasks formally divided, grouped and coordinated. For organisational effectiveness, six elements need to be addressed while designing organisational structure. These are: work specialisation, departmentation, chain of command, span of control, centralisation and decentralisation, and formalization. Technology: The term technology refers to how does an organisation transfer its inputs into outputs. Every organisation has at least one technology for converting financial, human and physical resources into products or services. The choice of technology and its use influences organisational effectiveness. Size: In a narrow sense organisational size refers to the number of people in an organisation. But, if we take a broader view, size refers to the physical capacity of the organisation, the personnel available to the organisation, the organisational inputs or outputs and the discretionary resources available to an organisation. It is the size which influences the structure which in turn influences organisational effectiveness. Benefits of organisational effectiveness:  · Structures and behaviours are aligned with business needs.  · Disruption to business is minimised which reduces operational risk.  · Employee morale is sustained which maintains productivity.  · The right employees and talent are retained.  · Employees objectives and rewards are aligned to business goals. CONCLUSION Organisation structure refers to the grouping of activities and establishing pattern of relationship among the various parts of the organisation. It involves the assignment of tasks, establishment of hierarchical relationship, creation of policies, procedures, coordination and control of all activities in the organisation. The Organisational designs are dependent on a wide variety of factors; namely the management philosophy, the size of the organisation, the type of technology, and the external environmental factors. Therefore, there cannot be tailor-made solutions for all organisations. The ultimate aim for the organisation is to be effective and organisational structure is a tool in the attainment of organisational objectives. The components of organisational effectiveness are managerial policies and practices, employee characteristics, organizational characteristics and the environmental characteristics. Organizational structure is what ensures that your organization will function smoothly and as you intended. You should think about structure early in the development of your organization, but be aware that the type that fits best may change as your organization grows.